Voluntary Planning

Submitted May 5, 2008

INTRODUCTION
It is important to consider the potential impacts of forestry activities on
water quality. Water quality standards can be set for varying water uses (eg. Recreational, fresh water aquatic life and drinking water). In terms of drinking water supplies - the cost of treatment to remove a contaminant far exceeds the cost of prevention, and some sources of contamination could render a water supply unpotable.

One impact is an increase in the turbidity of the water caused by erosion
and sedimentation. Control of turbidity in drinking water supplies is important for both health and aesthetic reasons. Excessive turbidity detracts from the appearance of treated water and can interfere with disinfection processes and the maintenance of an appropriate post-treatment chlorine level (or residual). Suspended materials can serve as a source of nutrients for microorganisms as well as interfering with their monitoring. The adsorptive properties of suspended particles can lead to a concentration of heavy metal ions and biocides in turbid waters. Turbidity has also been related to trihalomethane (THM) formation in chlorinated water. In addition, turbidity has often been associated with unacceptable tastes and odours
(Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water, Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee
on Drinking Water). Increases in turbidity levels in the raw water will increase the
amount of backwashing required at the water treatment facility. This will result in
additional chemical and staffing costs. Increases in sediment levels will have similar
effects on the treatment facility. Another known impact of forestry activities are larger than normal losses of nitrate from soils and decaying plant materials to water courses.

POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF FORESTRY ON WATER QUALITY
In a study of 29 Oregon watersheds, harvesting increased sedimentation by an
average of 4 times over pre-harvest rates (Dorcey et al., 1980). Studies in New
Hampshire and New Brunswick have shown large increases in sediment loads,
as well as nitrate and potassium concentrations in logged watersheds
(Bormann and Likens, 1979; Pierce et al, 1972; Powell, 1983; and O’Brien,
1995).
The impacts on drinking water quality from roads, skid trails and harvesting
practices are important to consider when deciding whether a watershed should
be harvested, and, if so, how to harvest portions of the source area with the
least amount of impact on water quality. A forestry management plan should be
prepared for a period of 5 - 10 years into the future. This will assist in determining if the plan has sustainable management as a core objective.

USE SILVICULTURALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICES
The following measures are a few examples of ways to reduce sedimentation,
high turbidity, and high nutrient and mineral concentrations, and include:
• The harvesting schedule should be well planned and silviculturally appropriate
(specific to the forest type). This could include use of selection cutting
(not selective cutting, which is a form of high grading), and patch cuts less
than 0.81 of a hectare for appropriate stands, such as tolerant softwood or
hardwood stands. There also should be a maximum of 1.5% of the watershed
area that can be harvested per year*. This will minimize the amount of
land with no trees or immature forest cover, and will establish an overall forest
cover with a wide range of ages.
*An article written by Pinel-Alloul et al., in the 2002 edition of Lake and Reservoir
Management indicates several conclusions and management recommendations:
1) The extent of disturbed watershed area relative to lake volume is the first determinant of the degree of impact of watershed disturbance.
2) They recommend that forestry companies consider the amount of forest harvested
within the watershed to reduce impacts on water quality.
3) Disturbance impacts increased with the drainage ratio (drainage basin to lake
volume ratio)
4) They recommend that, in lakes with drainage ratios > 4, logging be more
carefully planned

USE SILVICULTURALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICES
• Very sensitive areas (e.g. slopes greater than 10%, wet areas) should be
identified and no activity should take place in these areas.
• Ground-truthing/fieldwork would be an excellent source of information when
selecting harvesting techniques or non-harvest options.
• Prescriptions should be specific to the dominant tree species present. For
example, if a watershed is dominated by tolerant hardwoods, then individual
or group selection harvesting, or no harvesting at all, should be implemented
to minimize impacts. This is because tolerant hardwood forests are at very
low risk of large scale natural disturbances. Impacts from road creation, and
the clear cutting of tolerant hardwood and mixed-wood stands could result in
greater impacts on water quality than would result from any natural disturbance
and lead to growth of a forest dominated by pioneer, short-lived,
shade intolerant species that is more susceptible to large scale disturbance
than tolerant hardwoods and softwoods.
• If part of the watershed is in even-aged, pole, mature or ‘overmature’ softwood
classes (some even-aged softwood stands may be products of previous
human disturbance, such as white spruce growing on old fields) then an
appropriate silvicultural prescription would be to increase the diversity of age
classes and species to encourage a healthy, shade-tolerant, long-lived forest
which is less susceptible to natural disturbances.
• Work should be conducted during winter snow cover to minimize damage to
advanced natural regeneration of shade-tolerant species, if present, as well
as to reduce soil rutting and disturbance of mineral soils.
• It is important to consider that if drinking water quality is the primary, overriding
objective for management of the area, you should consider disallowing
the construction of roads and harvesting of trees except in areas
with a history of extensive human disturbance, such as recovering old fields.
• It should be noted that preventing old or dying trees from falling over by cutting
them is not a practice required to prevent sedimentation. As most trees
die, they remain standing as they rot. Eventually portions of the trunk break
off in windstorms. Other trees, like shallow-rooted spruce trees, sometimes
blow over, pulling their roots out of the ground. The pit and mound topography
of fallen and uprooted trees creates an uneven terrain, and therefore
reduces the speed and volume of rainwater, which in turn reduces the erosive
capacity of storm-flows. This reduces sedimentation.
Dominant forest type (existing or Suggested silvicultural regime
desired)

White pine/red pine; Jack pine; Uniform shelterwood or clearcut
White pine/tolerant hardwoods; White with seed-tree
spruce/white pine

Red spruce Single tree or group selection

Hemlock/tolerant hardwoods Single tree, group selection
White pine/red oak or uniform shelterwood

Ontario Tree Marking Guide (2002)

PROPERLY CONSTRUCT ROADS
New and existing roads and skid trails can lead to sedimentation of watercourses
through exposure of mineral soil and repeated disturbance by vehicles,
including off-highway recreational vehicles. A review of sediment loading from
logging road construction indicated results ranging from 0.2 - 8 g/l (Krause,
1982). In Carnation Creek, BC, sediments increased 2-175 times following logging
road construction, and sediments were still accumulating in downstream
areas 10 years after logging (Hartman and Scrivener, 1990).
When a forest is harvested the amount of impervious ground increases. A clear
cut forest will absorb a lot less water and contaminants than a forest. This will
cause an increase in contamination, flooding and erosion of nearby watercourses.
In Canada, increases in peak flows following harvesting range from of
0-230% (Hetherington, 1986). Faster-moving water has an increased capacity
to destabilize, erode and transport sediments and debris (Krause, 1982; Hetherington,
1986). Higher peak flows enhance scouring of bottom sediments, accelerate
bank cutting and stream widening, destabilize debris dams, and intensify
downstream siltation (OMNR, 1988).
New roads should be carefully planned out and constructed according to strict
guidelines. Existing roads should be carefully maintained or removed/revegetated
if necessary.

EROSION REDUCTION DEVICES FOR ROADS
• Broad based dips
• Water bars
• Reverse grades
• Cross drainage culverts for large (100 year) storms
• Open top culverts
• Road-sloping: Insloping, Outsloping,
• Crowning, Corduroy for large (100 year) storms
• Infiltration ditches or ponds
- Maximize infiltration of runoff! Place roads a safe distance from watercourses
(e.g. 50 - 150 m, except where crossings are required).

Considerations when constructing roads:
Consideration for increased risk of forest fires should be made before any new
roads are constructed.
• In Nova Scotia, 98 per cent of the risk is from humans (Glennie, 1995). Only
2 per cent of fires are started by lightning (1990-1994 averages).
• Many fires occur in spring and early summer when human activity increases.
Grass burning and spring cleanup fires, almost traditional practices in the
province, often escape control and result in wildfires. When summer arrives,
the number of people in the woods increases and as they travel, they bring
fire danger with them.
Therefore, new and existing roads will increase the accessibility of the forest to
humans. Humans traveling through the forest can unknowingly cause forest
fires through improper campfire practices (uncontrolled fires, incomplete extinguishing
of fires, etc.), discarded cigarettes, etc. ATV use can also start fires
through sparks from the machines. Fires can also be knowingly set by arsonists.

MACHINERY
Minimize use of heavy machinery. Heavy machinery can increase disturbance
and compaction of soils and destruction of vegetation that can lead to sedimentation
and declines in water quality. Precautions should also be taken to reduce the
risk of contaminant leaks from machinery, such as:
• Inspect machinery for leaking oils, lubricants, etc. before entering
water supply area. If any leaks are found, repair them before entering
the area.
• Do not store machinery, lubricants or fuel greater than 5 L in volume

USE APPROPRIATELY SIZED BUFFER STRIPS
Leave a buffer strip around watercourses. Buffer strips maintain soil structure
and therefore reduce erosion and siltation of the watercourse. They also
reduce the transport of sediment eroded from areas of mineral soil exposure.
The canopy reduces the erosive capacity of raindrops falling directly on soils.
The canopy, combined with a thick understory and organic layer, will also cause
more rainfall to recharge groundwater and reduce overland flow (Beven and
Germann, 1982).
Buffer Strips should be greater than 20 metres from the high water mark. No
cutting and no machinery should be allowed within the buffer strip. At least 90% of natural canopy should remain untouched, and man-made tree canopy openings should be less than 5 metres. An abundance of dead wood, standing and fallen, of the full range of sizes available, should remain within a minimum of 10 metres of the watercourse after any harvesting activity. This will allow fallen dead wood in the watercourses to act as sediment traps. Cutting and road-building in riparian areas reduces recruitment of large trees falling into stream channels.
Dead trees falling into streams are an essential component of a stable stream
ecosystem: they reduce flow rates, trap sediments, enhance the number and
volume of pools, create cover for fishes, and store organic matter (Hicks et al.,
1991). Harvesting within the remaining portion should be limited to very lowintensity
selection cutting. Buffers should also be maintained around wetlands
since they are important areas for water filtration. Heavy machinery and fuel
storage containers should not be permitted within the buffer strip.
http://www.chesapeakebay.net/pubs/subcommittee/

Exerts from Chesapeake Bay
Riperian Handbook – USDA –
Forestry Service (1998):
The Executive Council of the Chesapeake Bay Program has defined a Riparian
Forest Buffer as:
“an area of trees, usually accompanied by shrubs and other vegetation,
that is adjacent to a body of water and which is managed to maintain the
integrity of stream channels and shorelines, to reduce the impact of upland
sources of pollution by trapping, filtering and converting sediments,
nutrients, and other chemicals, and to supply food, cover, and thermal
protection to fish and other wildlife.”
“Buffers in better condition (e.g.
dense native vegetation, undisturbed
soils, healthy microbial
community) are likely to provide a variety of functions
more effectively…these
http://www.chesapeakebay.net/pubs/subcommittee/

SEDIMENTATION
Use sedimentation control devices when harvesting patches greater than
0.8 Ha. The removal of large areas of forest and road construction will result in
soil being exposed. If it rains soil could be washed into nearby ditches or watercourses.
A certified forester or engineer should properly design a sediment and
erosion control site plan. Proposed structures/practices will depend on the type
of harvesting method and the size of the harvest, and may include:
• Placing filter fibre or straw bales between exposed soil and
ditches or watercourses
• Water quality and quantity ponds, and engineered wetlands
• Grassed swales
• Terracing slopes
• Working during summer or winter, or when rainfall events are at a
minimum
• Minimizing harvesting and road construction in areas with slopes
over 5%
• Placing organic material (i.e. straw) over any exposed soil
• Keeping as much natural vegetation as possible
• Re-vegetating exposed soils as soon as possible

Example of Forestry Management Plan Requirements
The following example shows how NS could implement requirements
on a harvesting operation to prevent contamination of it’s water.
______________________________________________________________
Dear Pulp Producer:
Thank-you for agreeing to work with us to harvest a portion of our watershed that
is currently even-aged white spruce. Please develop a 5 year forestry management
plan that provides detailed information on how you will meet the following
requirements:
ROADS
• Roads must be constructed according to the N.S. Department of Natural Resources
manual: Forest Access Roads - Planning and Construction Manual
(1982); and the N.S. Department of Environment and Labour manual: Erosion
and Sedimentation Control Handbook for Construction Sites (1988), and must
also meet the following requirements:
• Culverts are to be sized for 1:100 year storms
• Roads must be located greater than 40 m from watercourses, except
where stream crossings are required
• A road technician must inspect roads at least 3 times per week during
construction, and once a month for the period following completion
of the road, for a period of one year. Following this, roads must
be inspected once every three months. An inspection report must be
submitted to the Committee within one week of the inspection. Any
necessary repairs will be made by your company and will be inspected
by the water works operator. Random inspections will also
be made by the water works operator
• Roads that are no longer required by your company will be revegetated
immediately.
SILVICULTURE
• A maximum of 1.5% of the watershed area will be harvested per year.
• Very sensitive areas (e.g. slopes greater than 10%, wet areas, etc.) should be
identified and no activity should take place in these areas.
Example of Forestry Management Plan Requirements
BUFFER STRIPS
• Buffer Strips should be greater than 50 metres from the high water mark
(1:100 year flood level) of all watercourses, and from the edge of all wetlands,
bogs and fens
• No cutting and no machinery will be allowed within the buffer strip
USE OF MACHINERY
• Inspect machinery for leaking oils, lubricants, etc. before entering water
source area. If any leaks are found, repair them before entering the water
source area
• Do not store machinery, lubricants or fuel greater than 5 L in volume in water
source areas
• Re-fuelling of machinery will be done by a service truck and will take place at
designated locations that are at least 150 m from watercourses
• Any machinery that has the capacity to contain greater than 5 L of lubricants
or fuel must have a small oil spill kit at all times
• Contents of small oil spill kit: 2 absorbent socs (booms), 8 litre absorbent
particulate, 1 drain sealer and 2 disposal bags
• Any re-fueling/service trucks must have a large oil spill kit at all times
• Contents of large oil spill kit: 8 absorbent pads (or blankets), 2 absorbent
socs (booms), 30 litre absorbent particulate, 2 drain sealers
and 4 disposal bags
• Any loss of fuel or lubricants greater than 1 litre within the source area will be
documented and reported to the water works operator immediately
This plan will be reviewed bi-annually and water quality monitoring will be used to
determine the effectiveness of the plan.

BUFFER WIDTH SELECTION TOOL

Buffer Width = 2*SL + (2*TR)2 + 4*SW + CL
SL = Slope
TR = Tree Removal (basal area)
SW = Stream Width
CL = percentage silt by weight of soil*
Buffer Width = (2 * Slope) + (40 * % basal area removal per 300 m perpendicular
to watercourse per 20 year period)2 + (4 * Stream Width) +
(percentage silt by weight of soil – 20)

E.G.
Clearcut on an area with a slope of 5% next to a stream with a 2 m wide bed
and silt-loam soil (35% percent silt by weight)
= (2*5) + (40*(5/20))2 + (4*2) + (35 – 20)
= (2*5) + (40*0.25)2 + (4*2) + (35 – 20) = 133 m buffer

Selection harvesting with a slope of 5% next to a stream with a 2 m wide bed
and silt-loam soil
= (2*5) + (40*(1.5/20))2 + (4*2) + (35-20)
= (2*5) + (40*0.075)2 + (4*2) + (35-20) = 40 m buffer

Clearcut equivalent to removing 5% basal area every year for 20 years or 100%
in one year with no removal for at least another 20 years
Selection harvesting equivalent to 1.5% basal area removal each year for 20
years or 30% in one year, with no removal for another 20 years

Additional requirements for Buffer:
- No machinery or tree removal in buffer strip
- 300 metre special management area surrounding
watercourse
- Tree size and age of forest should be considered
- Buffer should be measured from top of watercourse
bank or high water mark, whichever is greater
*Percent silt by weight must >= 20%
This tool could be used to develop very site specific buffer widths and requires
detailed information on the site. This may not be suitable for all forestry plans.

Glossary of Additional Information
Water Quality Pond – a small depression at the lowest end of a harvested area. These ponds
are dry for most of the year and should be less than 30 centimetres deep when wet. The ponds
act to increase infiltration of runoff, thereby decreasing negative water quality impacts off-site.
The pond also acts to reduce the quantity of runoff from the site. This will reduce flooding and
erosion problems off-site.
Grassed Swales – are shallow, vegetated ditches that reduce the volume and velocity of runoff.
A qualified engineer should properly design these structures.
For re-enforcing water crossings:
Brush Layering – consists of alternating layers of live branches and soil, creating a series of
reinforced benches. About 75% of willow or dogwood branches can be buried, and developing
roots will reinforce the soil.
Inter-planting Rip Rap – live cuttings are planted between various size large stones on the soil
surface where the water contacts the soil.
Staking – Live or dead wood stakes can be used to stabilize soil or secure other materials in
place.
Soil Ledges – are created parallel to the watercourse and act to reduce the slope of a bank.
The slope is re-vegetated with natural plants.
Cedar Logs – cedar logs can be used to replace concrete, rock, steel, and creosote walls. The
cedar will have less of an impact on water quality than the other materials.
Examples of Forestry Best Management Practices in Nova Scotian
Source Areas
Halifax Regional Water Commission (HRWC)
The Halifax Regional Water Commission has an annual Forestry Management
Plan that provides direction for any forestry activities that may occur on their
private land within 4 watersheds and on Crown Land within one watershed.
The plan provides an overview of each of the watersheds, description of
non-timber values to manage for, operations to be conducted including roads,
harvesting and silviculture, and discussion of watershed inventories and assessments.
HRWC only harvests when the forest stand is determined to be
susceptible to disease, insects or fire. Forest interventions have occurred in
younger stands to salvage windthrown timber, conduct a commercial thinning,
or improve forest conditions. Best Management Practices are followed for all
activities. Riparian buffers normally follow stand and soil characteristics and
potential wildlife habitat to create a variable width buffer of >20 meters. Provincial
wildlife regulations that require retention to be left on a cut area is considered
a minimum.

Quabbin Forest – Supplies a Portion of Boston’s Drinking Water
General Management Guidelines:General
• moving from even-aged to uneven-aged stands
• ~1/3 regenerated each entry
• 20 to 30 year cutting cycle
• use group selection and patch cuts less than 0.81 hectare
• wildlife and cultural resources protected
• riparian area focus and protection
• stormwater management on roads
• Internal reviews
• contract specs and supervision by the advisory committee
• performance bonds for contractors performance bonds
Mgt. Guidelines
Their operation is FSC certified

FORESTRY STEWARDSHIP COUNCIL (FSC) CERTIFICATION
The Forest Stewardship Council is an international non-profit organization
founded in 1993 to support environmentally appropriate, socially beneficial,
and economically viable management of the world's forests.
It is an association of Members consisting of a diverse group of representatives
from environmental and social groups, the timber trade and the forestry
profession, indigenous people's organizations, community forestry groups and
forest product certification organizations from around the world.
It provides a truly independent, international and credible labeling scheme on
timber and timber products. This will provide the consumer with a guarantee
that the product has come from a forest, which has been evaluated and certified
as being managed according to agreed social, economic and environmental
standards.
As an example, since 1998 the whole of Stora Enso’s forest holdings in Sweden,
1.9 million hectares, has been certified by the FSC.
SmartWood
SmartWood was accredited by the FSC for natural forest management certification
in early 1996, and is now accredited for plantation, non-timber forest
products and chain-of-custody certifications. SmartWood has certified more
than 800 operations and 25 million acres worldwide.

SmartWood Certified Operation in Canada:
DOMTAR FOREST RESOURCES - TRENTON AND CORNWALL
EASTERN ONTARIO MODEL FOREST
GROUPEMENT FORESTIER DE L'EST DU LAC TEMISCOUATA INC.
HALIBURTON FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESERVE, LTD.
IISAAK FOREST RESOURCES LTD.
NAGAYA FOREST RESTORATION, LTD.
PICTOU LANDING FIRST NATION
TEMBEC INC. - GORDON COSENS FOREST
THE REGIONAL MUNICIPALITY OF YORK

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http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/forestry/forestry2.htm
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http://www.novaforestalliance.com
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